Who Was Dutch Painter of the Baroque Art Style

17th-century form of Dutch painting

Dutch Gold Age painting is the painting of the Dutch Golden Age, a flow in Dutch history roughly spanning the 17th century,^[one] during and after the afterward role of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) for Dutch independence.

The new Dutch Republic was the about prosperous nation in Europe and led European merchandise, science, and art. The northern Netherlandish provinces that made up the new state had traditionally been less important creative centres than cities in Flanders in the s. The upheavals and large-scale transfers of population of the war, and the sharp suspension with the onetime monarchist and Cosmic cultural traditions, meant that Dutch fine art had to reinvent itself about entirely, a job in which it was very largely successful. The painting of religious subjects declined very sharply, merely a large new market for all kinds of secular subjects grew up.

Although Dutch painting of the Gold Age is included in the general European menstruation of Bizarre painting, and oft shows many of its characteristics, nigh lacks the idealization and honey of splendour typical of much Baroque piece of work, including that of neighbouring Flanders. Most work, including that for which the period is best known, reflects the traditions of detailed realism inherited from Early Netherlandish painting.

Frans Hals' tronie, with the later championship Gypsy Girl. 1628–30. Oil on forest, 58 cm × 52 cm (23 in × 20 in). The tronie includes elements of portraiture, genre painting, and sometimes history painting.

A distinctive feature of the period is the proliferation of distinct genres of paintings,^[2] with the majority of artists producing the bulk of their work inside one of these. The full development of this specialization is seen from the late 1620s, and the flow from and so until the French invasion of 1672 is the core of Golden Historic period painting. Artists would spend most of their careers painting merely portraits, genre scenes, landscapes, seascapes and ships, or still lifes, and frequently a particular sub-blazon within these categories. Many of these types of discipline were new in Western painting, and the style the Dutch painted them in this period was decisive for their future development.

Types of painting [edit]

A distinctive feature of the catamenia, compared to earlier European painting, was the small amount of religious painting. Dutch Calvinism forbade religious painting in churches, and though biblical subjects were acceptable in private homes, relatively few were produced. The other traditional classes of history and portrait painting were present, but the period is more than notable for a huge variety of other genres, sub-divided into numerous specialized categories, such as scenes of peasant life, landscapes, townscapes, landscapes with animals, maritime paintings, flower paintings and still lifes of various types. The development of many of these types of painting was decisively influenced past 17th-century Dutch artists.

The widely held theory of the "hierarchy of genres" in painting, whereby some types were regarded as more prestigious than others, led many painters to desire to produce history painting. Still, this was the hardest to sell, as even Rembrandt found. Many were forced to produce portraits or genre scenes, which sold much more than hands. In descending club of status, the categories in the hierarchy were:

history painting, including allegories and popular religious subjects.
portrait painting, including the tronie
genre painting or scenes of everyday life
landscape, including seascapes, battlescenes, cityscapes, and ruins (landscapists were the "common footmen in the Army of Art" co-ordinate to Samuel van Hoogstraten.^[three])
all the same life

The Dutch full-bodied heavily on the "lower" categories, simply past no means rejected the concept of the hierarchy.^[4] Most paintings were relatively modest – the only common type of really large paintings were grouping portraits. Painting directly onto walls hardly existed; when a wall-infinite in a public building needed decorating, fitted framed sheet was normally used. For the extra precision possible on a hard surface, many painters continued to use wooden panels, some time after the rest of Western Europe had abandoned them; some used copper plates, usually recycling plates from printmaking. In turn, the number of surviving Golden Age paintings was reduced past them existence overpainted with new works by artists throughout the 18th and 19th century – poor ones were usually cheaper than a new sheet, stretcher and frame.

There was very niggling Dutch sculpture during the flow; it is mostly found in tomb monuments and attached to public buildings, and small-scale sculptures for houses are a noticeable gap, their place taken past silverware and ceramics. Painted delftware tiles were very cheap and mutual, if rarely of really loftier quality, simply silver, especially in the auricular style, led Europe. With this exception, the best artistic efforts were full-bodied on painting and printmaking.

The art globe [edit]

Dirck Hals, genre scene of Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in an Interior. Note the paintings on the wall of what appears to be a tavern; likewise here.

Foreigners remarked on the enormous quantities of art produced and the large fairs where many paintings were sold – information technology has been roughly estimated that over i.3 1000000 Dutch pictures were painted in the xx years after 1640 lonely.^[5] The volume of production meant that prices were adequately low, except for the best known artists; equally in virtually subsequent periods, at that place was a steep cost slope for more fashionable artists.^[6] Those without a strong contemporary reputation, or who had fallen out of style, including many now considered amongst the greatest of the period, such as Vermeer, Frans Hals and Rembrandt in his terminal years, had considerable problems earning a living, and died poor; many artists had other jobs, or abased fine art entirely.^[7] In particular the French invasion of 1672 (the Rampjaar, or "yr of disaster"), brought a severe depression to the art marketplace, which never quite returned to earlier heights.^[8]

The distribution of pictures was very broad: "yea many tymes, blacksmithes, cobblers etts., will have some picture or other by their Forge and in their stalle. Such is the generall Notion, enclination and delight that these Countrie Native take to Painting" reported an English traveller in 1640.^[nine] There were for virtually the starting time fourth dimension many professional art dealers, several also significant artists, like Vermeer and his begetter, Jan van Goyen and Willem Kalf. Rembrandt's dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh and his son Gerrit were among the nigh important. Landscapes were the easiest uncommissioned works to sell, and their painters were the "common footmen in the Army of Art" according to Samuel van Hoogstraten.^[ten]

The technical quality of Dutch artists was generally loftier, still mostly following the old medieval organisation of training by apprenticeship with a master. Typically workshops were smaller than in Flanders or Italy, with only one or two apprentices at a time, the number often being restricted by social club regulations. The turmoil of the early on years of the Democracy, with displaced artists from the South moving north and the loss of traditional markets in the court and church, led to a resurgence of artists guilds, often notwithstanding called the Guild of Saint Luke. In many cases these involved the artists extricating themselves from medieval groupings where they shared a guild with several other trades, such as housepainting. Several new guilds were established in the menstruation: Amsterdam in 1579, Haarlem in 1590, and Gouda, Rotterdam, Utrecht and Delft between 1609 and 1611.^[xi] The Leiden government distrusted guilds and did non allow i until 1648.^[12]

Later in the century it began to become clear to all involved that the old idea of a guild controlling both preparation and sales no longer worked well, and gradually the guilds were replaced with academies, oft but concerned with the training of artists. The Hague, with the court, was an early example, where artists split into two groups in 1656 with the founding of the Confrerie Pictura. With the obvious exception of portraits, many more than Dutch paintings were done "speculatively" without a specific commission than was then the case in other countries – ane of many means in which the Dutch art market showed the futurity.^[13]

There were many dynasties of artists, and many married the daughters of their masters or other artists. Many artists came from well-off families, who paid fees for their apprenticeships, and they often married into holding. Rembrandt and Jan Steen were both enrolled at the University of Leiden for a while. Several cities had distinct styles and specialities by subject, but Amsterdam was the largest creative centre, because of its great wealth.^[14] Cities such every bit Haarlem and Utrecht were more important in the first half of the century, with Leiden and other cities emerging after 1648, and to a higher place all Amsterdam, which increasingly drew to it artists from the residuum of kingdom of the netherlands, every bit well every bit Flanders and Germany.^[xv]

Dutch artists were strikingly less concerned about artistic theory than those of many nations, and less given to discussing their art; information technology appears that at that place was as well much less involvement in artistic theory in general intellectual circles and among the wider public than was by then common in Italia.^[16] As nearly all commissions and sales were private, and between conservative individuals whose accounts accept not been preserved, these are besides less well documented than elsewhere. Just Dutch art was a source of national pride, and the major biographers are crucial sources of information. These are Karel van Mander (Het Schilderboeck, 1604), who essentially covers the previous century, and Arnold Houbraken (De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen – "The Bang-up Theatre of Dutch Painters", 1718–21). Both followed, and indeed exceeded, Vasari in including a keen number of short lives of artists – over 500 in Houbraken'southward example – and both are considered generally authentic on factual matters.

The German artist Joachim von Sandrart (1606–1688) had worked for periods in The netherlands, and his Deutsche Akademie in the same format covers many Dutch artists he knew. Houbraken'southward master, and Rembrandt'southward student, was Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627–1678), whose Zichtbare wereld and Inleyding tot de Hooge Schoole der Schilderkonst (1678) contain more critical than biographical data, and are among the well-nigh important treatises on painting of the period. Like other Dutch works on the theory of art, they expound many commonplaces of Renaissance theory and practice non entirely reflect gimmicky Dutch fine art, still often concentrating on history painting.^[17]

History painting [edit]

This category comprises non only paintings that depicted historical events of the past, but also paintings that showed biblical, mythological, literary and emblematic scenes. Recent historical events essentially fell out of the category, and were treated in a realist fashion, as the advisable combination of portraits with marine, townscape or landscape subjects.^[eighteen] Big dramatic historical or Biblical scenes were produced less frequently than in other countries, as there was no local market for church fine art, and few large aristocratic Baroque houses to fill. More than that, the Protestant population of major cities had been exposed to some remarkably hypocritical uses of Mannerist apologue in unsuccessful Habsburg propaganda during the Dutch Revolt, which had produced a strong reaction towards realism and a distrust of grandiose visual rhetoric.^[nineteen] History painting was now a "minority fine art", although to an extent this was redressed by a relatively swell interest in impress versions of history subjects.^[twenty]

More than in other types of painting, Dutch history painters continued to be influenced by Italian painting. Prints and copies of Italian masterpieces circulated and suggested certain compositional schemes. The growing Dutch skill in the depiction of light was brought to touch styles derived from Italy, notably that of Caravaggio. Some Dutch painters also travelled to Italy, though this was less mutual than with their Flemish contemporaries, equally can be seen from the membership of the Bentvueghels guild in Rome.^[13]

In the early office of the century many Northern Mannerist artists with styles formed in the previous century continued to work, until the 1630s in the cases of Abraham Bloemaert and Joachim Wtewael.^[21] Many history paintings were small in scale, with the High german painter (based in Rome) Adam Elsheimer as much an influence as Caravaggio (both died in 1610) on Dutch painters like Pieter Lastman, Rembrandt'southward primary, and Jan and Jacob Pynas. Compared to Bizarre history painting from other countries, they shared the Dutch accent on realism, and narrative directness, and are sometimes known as the "Pre-Rembrandtists", every bit Rembrandt's early paintings were in this style.^[22]

Utrecht Caravaggism describes a group of artists who produced both history painting and generally large genre scenes in an Italian-influenced style, frequently making heavy use of chiaroscuro. Utrecht, before the revolt the almost important metropolis in the new Dutch territory, was an unusual Dutch metropolis, still nearly 40% Cosmic in the mid-century, fifty-fifty more amidst the elite groups, who included many rural dignity and gentry with town houses in that location.^[23] The leading artists were Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerard van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen, and the school was active about 1630, although van Honthorst connected until the 1650s as a successful courtroom painter to the English, Dutch and Danish courts in a more classical manner.^[24]

Rembrandt began every bit a history painter earlier finding financial success as a portraitist, and he never relinquished his ambitions in this area. A keen number of his etchings are of narrative religious scenes, and the story of his last history committee, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) illustrates both his commitment to the form and the difficulties he had in finding an audience.^[25] Several artists, many his pupils, attempted with some success to continue his very personal style; Govaert Flinck was the most successful. Gerard de Lairesse (1640–1711) was another of these, before falling under heavy influence from French classicism, and becoming its leading Dutch proponent equally both artist and theoretician.^[26]

Nudity was effectively the preserve of the history painter, although many portraitists dressed up their occasional nudes (nearly always female) with a classical title, every bit Rembrandt did. For all their uninhibited suggestiveness, genre painters rarely revealed more than a generous cleavage or stretch of thigh, usually when painting prostitutes or "Italian" peasants.

Portraits [edit]

Portrait painting thrived in the netherlands in the 17th century, every bit at that place was a large mercantile class who were far more than ready to committee portraits than their equivalents in other countries; a summary of various estimates of total production arrives at between 750,000 and 1,100,000 portraits.^[28] Rembrandt enjoyed his greatest catamenia of financial success as a young Amsterdam portraitist, but similar other artists, grew rather bored with painting deputed portraits of burghers: "artists travel along this road without please", according to van Mander.^[29]

While Dutch portrait painting avoids the swagger and excessive rhetoric of the aristocratic Bizarre portraiture electric current in the rest of 17th-century Europe, the sombre clothing of male and in many cases female person sitters, and the Calvinist feeling that the inclusion of props, possessions or views of land in the background would show the sin of pride leads to an undeniable sameness in many Dutch portraits, for all their technical quality. Even a standing pose is usually avoided, as a full-length might too show pride. Poses are undemonstrative, especially for women, though children may be allowed more than freedom. The classic moment for having a portrait painted was upon spousal relationship, when the new hubby and married woman more often than not occupied separate frames in a pair of paintings. Rembrandt'due south later portraits compel by force of characterization, and sometimes a narrative element, but fifty-fifty his early portraits can exist dispiriting en masse, equally in the roomful of 'starter Rembrandts' donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Frans Hals, Willem Heythuijsen (1634), 47 cm × 37 cm (19 in × 15 in).

January Mijtens, family portrait, 1652, with the boys in "picturesque" clothes.

The other great portraitist of the period is Frans Hals, whose famously lively brushwork and ability to bear witness sitters looking relaxed and cheerful adds excitement to even the most unpromising subjects. The extremely "nonchalant pose" of his portrait of Willem Heythuijsen is exceptional: "no other portrait from this period is and so informal".^[30] The sitter was a wealthy cloth merchant who had already deputed Hals' only individual life-sized full-length portrait 10 years earlier. In this much smaller work for a private sleeping accommodation he wears riding wearing apparel.^[31] Jan de Bray encouraged his sitters to pose costumed every bit figures from classical history, but many of his works are of his own family unit. Thomas de Keyser, Bartholomeus van der Helst, Ferdinand Bol and others, including many mentioned below equally history or genre painters, did their best to enliven more than conventional works. Portraiture, less affected by manner than other types of painting, remained the safe fallback for Dutch artists.

From what little we know of the studio procedures of artists, it seems that, as elsewhere in Europe, the face was probably drawn and perhaps painted at an initial sitting or two. The typical number of further sittings is unclear - between zero (for a Rembrandt total-length) and 50 appear documented. The clothes were left at the studio and might well be painted by assistants, or a brought-in specialist chief, although, or because, they were regarded as a very important part of the painting.^[32] Married and never-married women can be distinguished past their clothes, highlighting how few single women were painted, except in family groups.^[33] As elsewhere, the accuracy of the clothes shown is variable - striped and patterned wearing apparel were worn, simply artists rarely testify them, understandably avoiding the extra work.^[34] Lace and ruff collars were unavoidable, and presented a formidable challenge to painters intent on realism. Rembrandt evolved a more effective mode of painting patterned lace, laying in broad white stokes, and then painting lightly in blackness to testify the design. Another way of doing this was to paint in white over a blackness layer, and scratch off the white with the end of the brush to show the pattern.^[35]

At the stop of the century there was a way for showing sitters in a semi-fancy dress, begun in England by van Dyck in the 1630s, known equally "picturesque" or "Roman" wearing apparel.^[36] Aloof, and militia, sitters immune themselves more freedom in bright dress and expansive settings than burghers, and religious affiliations probably affected many depictions. Past the end of the century aloof, or French, values were spreading among the burghers, and depictions were allowed more than freedom and display.

A distinctive blazon of painting, combining elements of the portrait, history, and genre painting was the tronie. This was ordinarily a half-length of a single figure which concentrated on capturing an unusual mood or expression. The actual identity of the model was non supposed to be important, but they might represent a historical effigy and be in exotic or celebrated costume. January Lievens and Rembrandt, many of whose self-portraits are also tronies (peculiarly his etched ones), were amid those who adult the genre.

Family portraits tended, as in Flanders, to be prepare outdoors in gardens, simply without an all-encompassing view as afterward in England, and to be relatively informal in apparel and mood. Group portraits, largely a Dutch invention, were pop amongst the large numbers of civic associations that were a notable part of Dutch life, such as the officers of a city'south schutterij or militia guards, boards of trustees and regents of guilds and charitable foundations and the like. Peculiarly in the first half of the century, portraits were very formal and stiff in limerick. Groups were often seated effectually a tabular array, each person looking at the viewer. Much attention was paid to fine details in clothing, and where applicative, to piece of furniture and other signs of a person's position in society. Later in the century groups became livelier and colours brighter. Rembrandt's Syndics of the Drapers' Guild is a subtle treatment of a grouping round a table.

Scientists often posed with instruments and objects of their study around them. Physicians sometimes posed together around a cadaver, a so-called 'Anatomical Lesson', the almost famous 1 beingness Rembrandt'south Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632, Mauritshuis, The Hague). Boards of trustees in their regentenstuk portraits preferred an image of thrift and humility, posing in night clothing (which by its refinement testified to their prominent standing in club), often seated around a table, with solemn expressions on their faces.

Well-nigh militia group portraits were commissioned in Haarlem and Amsterdam, and were much more flamboyant and relaxed or even boisterous than other types of portraits, equally well every bit much larger. Early on examples showed them dining, but later groups showed near figures standing for a more dynamic composition. Rembrandt'due south famous The Militia Company of Helm Frans Banning Cocq better known equally the Dark Lookout (1642), was an aggressive and not entirely successful endeavor to show a group in activity, setting out for a patrol or parade, besides innovative in avoiding the typical very wide format of such works.

The toll of group portraits was normally shared past the subjects, often not equally. The corporeality paid might determine each person'southward place in the film, either head to toe in full regalia in the foreground or face only in the dorsum of the grouping. Sometimes all group members paid an equal sum, which was likely to lead to quarrels when some members gained a more prominent place in the picture than others. In Amsterdam nearly of these paintings would ultimately end up in the possession of the city council, and many are at present on display in the Amsterdams Historisch Museum; there are no significant examples exterior the Netherlands.

Scenes of everyday life [edit]

A typical Jan Steen moving picture (c. 1663); while the housewife sleeps, the household play.^[37]

Genre paintings show scenes that prominently feature figures to whom no specific identity tin can be attached – they are not portraits or intended as historical figures. Together with landscape painting, the development and enormous popularity of genre painting is the well-nigh distinctive feature of Dutch painting in this period, although in this case they were too very popular in Flemish painting. Many are single figures, like the Vermeer'south The Milkmaid; others may show big groups at some social occasion, or crowds.

There were a large number of sub-types within the genre: single figures, peasant families, tavern scenes, "merry company" parties, women at work near the firm, scenes of village or town festivities (though these were still more common in Flemish painting), market scenes, billet scenes, scenes with horses or farm animals, in snowfall, by moonlight, and many more than. In fact well-nigh of these had specific terms in Dutch, merely at that place was no overall Dutch term equivalent to "genre painting" – until the late 18th century the English often called them "drolleries".^[38] Some artists worked by and large within i of these sub-types, peculiarly after well-nigh 1625.^[39] Over the course of the century, genre paintings tended to reduce in size.

Though genre paintings provide many insights into the daily life of 17th-century citizens of all classes, their accuracy cannot always be taken for granted.^[forty] Typically they show what art historians term a "reality effect" rather than an bodily realist depiction; the degree to which this is the example varies between artists. Many paintings which seem only to depict everyday scenes actually illustrated Dutch proverbs and sayings or conveyed a moralistic message – the meaning of which may now demand to exist deciphered by art historians, though some are clear plenty. Many artists, and no incertitude purchasers, certainly tried to accept things both ways, enjoying the depiction of disorderly households or brothel scenes, while providing a moral interpretation – the works of Jan Steen, whose other profession was as an innkeeper, are an case. The balance between these elements is even so debated by art historians today.^[41]

The titles given afterward to paintings often distinguish betwixt "taverns" or "inns" and "brothels", just in exercise these were very often the same establishments, as many taverns had rooms above or backside set aside for sexual purposes: "Inn in front; brothel behind" was a Dutch saying.^[42]

The Steen higher up is very clearly an exemplum, and though each of the private components of it is realistically depicted, the overall scene is not a plausible depiction of a existent moment; typically of genre painting, it is a situation that is depicted, and satirized.^[43]

The Renaissance tradition of recondite emblem books had, in the hands of the 17th-century Dutch – most universally literate in the colloquial, simply mostly without education in the classics – turned into the popularist and highly moralistic works of Jacob Cats, Roemer Visscher, and others, oft based in popular proverbs. The illustrations to these are often quoted directly in paintings, and since the start of the 20th century art historians accept attached proverbs, sayings and mottoes to a great number of genre works. Another popular source of pregnant is visual puns using the great number of Dutch slang terms in the sexual area: the vagina could be represented past a lute (luit) or stocking (kous), and sex activity by a bird (vogelen), amongst many other options,^[44] and purely visual symbols such as shoes, spouts, and jugs and flagons on their side.

The same painters often painted works in a very different spirit of housewives or other women at rest in the home or at piece of work – they massively outnumber similar treatments of men. In fact working-grade men going about their jobs are notably absent from Dutch Aureate Age fine art, with landscapes populated by travellers and idlers just rarely tillers of the soil.^[45] Despite the Dutch Republic being the most important nation in international merchandise in Europe, and the abundance of marine paintings, scenes of dock workers and other commercial activities are very rare.^[46] This group of subjects was a Dutch invention, reflecting the cultural preoccupations of the age,^[47] and was to exist adopted past artists from other countries, especially France, in the two centuries following.

The tradition developed from the realism and detailed background action of Early on Netherlandish painting, which Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elderberry were amongst the first to turn into their principal subjects, also making use of proverbs. The Haarlem painters Willem Pieterszoon Buytewech, Frans Hals and Esaias van de Velde were important painters early in the period. Buytewech painted "merry companies" of finely dressed young people, with moralistic significance lurking in the detail.

Gabriel Metsu, The Hunter's Souvenir, c. 1660, a report in marital relations, with a visual pun.^[48]

Van de Velde was also important as a landscapist, whose scenes included unglamorous figures very different from those in his genre paintings, which were typically ready at garden parties in country houses. Hals was principally a portraitist, but besides painted genre figures of a portrait size early on in his career.^[49]

A stay in Haarlem past the Flemish master of peasant tavern scenes Adriaen Brouwer, from 1625 or 1626, gave Adriaen van Ostade his lifelong subject, though he often took a more sentimental arroyo. Before Brouwer, peasants had normally been depicted outdoors; he usually shows them in a patently and dim interior, though van Ostade'south sometimes occupy ostentatiously decrepit farmhouses of enormous size.^[50]

Van Ostade was equally probable to paint a single figure as a group, as were the Utrecht Caravaggisti in their genre works, and the single figure, or small groups of ii or three became increasingly common, especially those including women and children. The most notable woman artist of the catamenia, Judith Leyster (1609–1660), specialized in these, earlier her husband, January Miense Molenaer, prevailed on her to requite upwardly painting. The Leiden school of fijnschilder ("fine painters") were renowned for small and highly finished paintings, many of this blazon. Leading artists included Gerard Dou, Gabriel Metsu, Frans van Mieris the Elderberry, and later his son Willem van Mieris, Godfried Schalcken, and Adriaen van der Werff.

This later generation, whose work now seems over-refined compared to their predecessors, also painted portraits and histories, and were the well-nigh highly regarded and rewarded Dutch painters past the stop of the period, whose works were sought subsequently all over Europe.^[51] Genre paintings reflected the increasing prosperity of Dutch society, and settings grew steadily more comfortable, opulent and carefully depicted as the century progressed. Artists not part of the Leiden group whose common subjects also were more intimate genre groups included Nicolaes Maes, Gerard ter Borch and Pieter de Hooch, whose interest in low-cal in interior scenes was shared with Jan Vermeer, long a very obscure figure, but now the nearly highly regarded genre painter of all.

The mute Hendrick Avercamp painted well-nigh exclusively winter scenes of crowds seen from some distance.
Nicolaes Maes, The idle servant; housemaid troubles were the subject of several of Maes' works.^[54]

Landscapes and cityscapes [edit]

Landscape painting was a major genre in the 17th century. Flemish landscapes (particularly from Antwerp) of the 16th century commencement served every bit an case. These had been not particularly realistic, having been painted mostly in the studio, partly from imagination, and often still using the semi-aerial view from to a higher place typical of before Netherlandish landscape painting in the "world landscape" tradition of Joachim Patinir, Herri met de Bles and the early Pieter Bruegel the Elder. A more than realistic Dutch landscape manner developed, seen from ground level, ofttimes based on drawings fabricated outdoors, with lower horizons which made it possible to emphasize the often impressive deject formations that were (and are) so typical in the climate of the region, and which cast a particular low-cal. Favourite subjects were the dunes forth the western sea declension, rivers with their broad adjoining meadows where cattle grazed, oftentimes with the silhouette of a city in the distance. Winter landscapes with frozen canals and creeks also abounded. The sea was a favourite topic as well since the Low Countries depended on it for trade, battled with it for new state, and battled on information technology with competing nations.

Important early on figures in the motility to realism were Esaias van de Velde (1587–1630) and Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634), both too mentioned above every bit genre painters – in Avercamp'southward case the same paintings deserve mention in each category. From the late 1620s the "tonal phase" of landscape painting started, as artists softened or blurred their outlines, and full-bodied on an atmospheric issue, with great prominence given to the sky, and human figures ordinarily either absent or pocket-size and distant. Compositions based on a diagonal beyond the picture infinite became popular, and water ofttimes featured. The leading artists were Jan van Goyen (1596–1656), Salomon van Ruysdael (1602–1670), Pieter de Molyn (1595–1661), and in marine painting Simon de Vlieger (1601–1653), with a host of small figures – a recent study lists over 75 artists who worked in van Goyen's manner for at least a period, including Cuyp.^[55]

Aelbert Cuyp, River mural with Riders (c. 1655); Cuyp specialized in golden evening low-cal in Dutch settings.

From the 1650s the "classical phase" began, retaining the atmospheric quality, but with more than expressive compositions and stronger contrasts of light and color. Compositions are often anchored past a single "heroic tree", windmill or tower, or transport in marine works.^[56] The leading artist was Jacob van Ruisdael (1628–1682), who produced a great quantity and diverseness of work, using every typical Dutch subject except the Italianate mural (below); instead he produced "Nordic" landscapes of dark and dramatic mountain pine forests with rushing torrents and waterfalls.^[57]

His student was Meindert Hobbema (1638–1709), best known for his atypical Avenue at Middelharnis (1689, London), a departure from his usual scenes of watermills and roads through woods. Two other artists with more personal styles, whose best work included larger pictures (up to a metre or more beyond), were Aelbert Cuyp (1620–1691) and Philips Koninck (1619–1688). Cuyp took golden Italian light and used it in evening scenes with a group of figures in the foreground and backside them a river and wide landscape. Koninck's best works are panoramic views, every bit from a hill, over wide flat farmlands, with a huge sky.

A different type of landscape, produced throughout the tonal and classical phases, was the romantic Italianate landscape, typically in more mountainous settings than are found in the Netherlands, with golden calorie-free, and sometimes picturesque Mediterranean staffage and ruins. Not all the artists who specialized in these had visited Italia. Jan Both (d. 1652), who had been to Rome and worked with Claude Lorrain, was a leading developer of the subgenre, which influenced the work of many painters of landscapes with Dutch settings, such equally Aelbert Cuyp. Other artists who consistently worked in the fashion were Nicolaes Berchem (1620–1683) and Adam Pijnacker. Italianate landscapes were popular as prints, and more than paintings by Berchem were reproduced in engravings during the period itself than those of any other creative person.^[58]

A number of other artists do not fit in any of these groups, above all Rembrandt, whose relatively few painted landscapes show various influences, including some from Hercules Seghers (c. 1589–c. 1638); his very rare big mountain valley landscapes were a very personal development of 16th-century styles.^[59] Aert van der Neer (d. 1677) painted very small scenes of rivers at night or under ice and snow.

Landscapes with animals in the foreground were a distinct sub-type, and were painted by Cuyp, Paulus Potter (1625–1654), Albert Jansz. Klomp (1625-1688), Adriaen van de Velde (1636–1672) and Karel Dujardin (1626–1678, farm animals), with Philips Wouwerman painting horses and riders in various settings. The cow was a symbol of prosperity to the Dutch, hitherto disregarded in art, and apart from the horse by far the most unremarkably shown brute; goats were used to point Italy. Potter'south The Young Bull is an enormous and famous portrait which Napoleon took to Paris (information technology subsequently returned) though livestock analysts accept noted from the delineation of the various parts of the anatomy that it appears to exist a composite of studies of six different animals of widely dissimilar ages.

Architecture as well fascinated the Dutch, churches in particular. At the start of the period the main tradition was of fanciful palaces and urban center views of invented Northern Mannerist architecture, which Flemish painting continued to develop, and in Holland was represented by Dirck van Delen. A greater realism began to appear and the exteriors and interiors of actual buildings were reproduced, though not always faithfully. During the century understanding of the proper rendering of perspective grew and were enthusiastically applied. Several artists specialized in church building interiors.

Pieter Jansz Saenredam, whose father Jan Saenredam engraved sensuous nude Mannerist goddesses, painted unpeopled views of at present whitewashed Gothic metropolis churches. His emphasis on even lite and geometry, with picayune depiction of surface textures, is brought out by comparing his works with those of Emanuel de Witte, who left in the people, uneven floors, contrasts of low-cal and such clutter of church furniture as remained in Calvinist churches, all usually ignored by Saenredam. Gerard Houckgeest, followed by van Witte and Hendrick van Vliet, had supplemented the traditional view forth a master axis of the church building with diagonal views that added drama and interest.^[60]

Gerrit Berckheyde specialized in lightly populated views of main urban center streets, squares, and major public buildings; Jan van der Heyden preferred more intimate scenes of quieter Amsterdam streets, often with trees and canals. These were real views, simply he did not hesitate to adjust them for compositional result.^[61]

Jacob van Ruisdael, View of Haarlem; Ruisdael is a primal figure, with more than varied subjects than many landscapists.
Jan Both, c. 1650, Italian landscape of the type Both began to pigment afterward his return from Rome.

Maritime painting [edit]

Salomon van Ruisdael, typical View of Deventer Seen from the North-W (1657); an example of the "tonal phase".

The Dutch Republic relied on merchandise past sea for its exceptional wealth, had naval wars with U.k. and other nations during the period, and was criss-crossed past rivers and canals. Information technology is therefore no surprise that the genre of maritime painting was enormously popular, and taken to new heights in the period by Dutch artists; every bit with landscapes, the move from the artificial elevated view typical of earlier marine painting was a crucial step.^[62] Pictures of ocean battles told the stories of a Dutch navy at the acme of its glory, though today it is usually the more tranquil scenes that are highly estimated. Ships are normally at bounding main, and dock scenes surprisingly absent.^[63]

More ofttimes than non, even pocket-size ships wing the Dutch tricolour, and many vessels can exist identified as naval or one of the many other government ships. Many pictures included some land, with a beach or harbour viewpoint, or a view across an estuary. Other artists specialized in river scenes, from the pocket-size pictures of Salomon van Ruysdael with trivial boats and reed-banks to the big Italianate landscapes of Aelbert Cuyp, where the sun is commonly setting over a broad river. The genre naturally shares much with landscape painting, and in developing the depiction of the sky the two went together; many landscape artists also painted beach and river scenes. Artists included Jan Porcellis, Simon de Vlieger, Jan van de Cappelle, Hendrick Dubbels and Abraham Storck. Willem van de Velde the Elder and his son are the leading masters of the later decades, tending, every bit at the starting time of the century, to brand the ship the subject, whereas in tonal works of earlier decades the emphasis had been on the sea and the weather condition. They left for London in 1672, leaving the main of heavy seas, the German-born Ludolf Bakhuizen, as the leading artist.^[64]

Nevertheless lifes [edit]

Nevertheless lifes were a swell opportunity to display skill in painting textures and surfaces in not bad item and with realistic light effects. Food of all kinds laid out on a table, silver cutlery, intricate patterns and subtle folds in table cloths and flowers all challenged painters.

Several types of bailiwick were recognised: banketje were "banquet pieces", ontbijtjes simpler "breakfast pieces".^[65] Well-nigh all however lifes had a moralistic bulletin, usually concerning the brevity of life – this is known as the vanitas theme – implicit fifty-fifty in the absenteeism of an obvious symbol like a skull, or less obvious 1 such equally a half-peeled lemon (like life, sweetness in appearance merely bitter to sense of taste).^[66] Flowers wilt and food decays, and silverish is of no use to the soul. All the same, the force of this message seems less powerful in the more than elaborate pieces of the second half of the century.

Initially the objects shown were near always mundane. However, from the mid-century pronkstillevens ("ostentatious still lifes"), which depicted expensive and exotic objects and had been developed every bit a subgenre in the 1640s in Antwerp by Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders and Adriaen van Utrecht, became more than popular.^[67] The early realist, tonal and classical phases of mural painting had counterparts in yet life painting.^[68] Willem Claeszoon Heda (1595–c. 1680) and Willem Kalf (1619–1693) led the alter to the pronkstilleven, while Pieter Claesz (d. 1660) preferred to paint simpler "ontbijt" ("breakfast pieces"), or explicit vanitas pieces.

In all these painters, colours are often very muted, with browns dominating, especially in the middle of the century. This is less true of the works of Jan Davidsz de Heem (1606–1684), an important figure who spent much of his career based over the border in Antwerp. Hither his displays began to sprawl sideways to course wide oblong pictures, unusual in the north, although Heda sometimes painted taller vertical compositions. Still life painters were particularly prone to form dynasties, information technology seems: there were many de Heems and Bosschaerts, Heda'south son continued in his male parent's style, and Claesz was the male parent of Nicholaes Berchem.

Bloom paintings formed a sub-group with its own specialists, and were occasionally the speciality of the few women artists, such as Maria van Oosterwyck and Rachel Ruysch.^[69] The Dutch besides led the world in botanical and other scientific drawings, prints and volume illustrations. Despite the intense realism of individual flowers, paintings were equanimous from private studies or even book illustrations, and blooms from very unlike seasons were routinely included in the same limerick, and the same flowers reappear in unlike works, just as pieces of tableware do. There was also a cardinal unreality in that bouquets of flowers in vases were not in fact at all common in houses at the time – even the very rich displayed flowers ane by one in delftware tulip-holders.^[70]

The Dutch tradition was largely begun by Ambrosius Bosschaert (1573–1621), a Flemish-born flower painter who had settled in the north by the beginning of the period, and founded a dynasty. His brother-in-constabulary Balthasar van der Ast (d. 1657) pioneered still lifes of shells, besides as painting flowers. These early works were relatively brightly lit, with the bouquets of flowers bundled in a relatively elementary way. From the mid-century arrangements that can fairly exist called Bizarre, usually confronting a dark background, became more popular, exemplified past the works of Willem van Aelst (1627–1683). Painters from Leiden, The Hague, and Amsterdam particularly excelled in the genre.

Dead game, and birds painted live only studied from the dead, were another subgenre, as were expressionless fish, a staple of the Dutch diet – Abraham van Beijeren did many of these.^[71] The Dutch were less given to the Flemish style of combining large still life elements with other types of painting – they would have been considered prideful in portraits – and the Flemish addiction of specialist painters collaborating on the different elements in the same work. But this sometimes did happen – Philips Wouwerman was occasionally used to add men and horses to turn a landscape into a hunting or skirmish scene, Berchem or Adriaen van de Velde to add together people or subcontract animals.

Willem van Aelst, Yet life with a lookout man (c. 1665), with typical night background.
Willem Claeszoon Heda, Breakfast Tabular array with Blackberry Pie (1631); Heda was famous for his depiction of cogitating surfaces.
Jan Weenix, Withal Life with a Dead Peacock (1692), set in the gardens of a large country house.

Foreign lands [edit]

For Dutch artists, Karel van Mander'southward Schilderboeck was meant non only equally a list of biographies, but as well a source of advice for young artists. Information technology quickly became a classic standard work for generations of young Dutch and Flemish artists in the 17th century. The book advised artists to travel and see the sights of Florence and Rome, and after 1604 many did so. Still, it is noticeable that the nearly important Dutch artists in all fields, figures such as Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals, Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, and others, had non made the voyage.^[13]

Many Dutch (and Flemish) painters worked abroad or exported their work; printmaking was also an important export marketplace, past which Rembrandt became known across Europe. The Dutch Gift to Charles 2 of England was a diplomatic gift which included iv contemporary Dutch paintings. English language painting was heavily reliant on Dutch painters, with Sir Peter Lely followed by Sir Godfrey Kneller, developing the English portrait style established past the Flemish Anthony van Dyck before the English Civil War. The marine painters van der Velde, father and son, were amidst several artists who left Holland at the French invasion of 1672, which brought a collapse in the art marketplace. They also moved to London, and the ancestry of English landscape painting were established by several less distinguished Dutch painters, such every bit Hendrick Danckerts.

The Bamboccianti were a colony of Dutch artists who introduced the genre scene to Italian republic. Jan Weenix and Melchior d'Hondecoeter specialized in game and birds, expressionless or alive, and were in demand for state business firm and shooting-lodge overdoors across Northern Europe.

Although the Dutch control of the northeast sugar-producing region of Dutch Brazil turned out to be cursory (1630-54), Governor Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen invited Dutch artists to paint scenes which are valuable in showing the seventeenth-century landscape and peoples of the region.^[72] The two well-nigh well known of these artists were Frans Post, a landscapist, and a still life painter, Albert Eckhout, who produced ethnographic paintings of Brazil's population. These were originally displayed in the Great Hall of the Vrijburg Palace in Recife.^[73] At that place was a market place in Amsterdam for such paintings,^[74] and Post continued to produce Brazilian scenes for years afterwards his return to the Netherlands. The Dutch Due east Indies were covered much less well artistically.

Subsequent reputation [edit]

Philips Wouwerman, Travelers Pending a Ferry (1649); a landscape with Wouwerman's trademark highlight of a white horse.

The enormous success of 17th-century Dutch painting overpowered the work of subsequent generations, and no Dutch painter of the 18th century—nor, arguably, a 19th-century one before Van Gogh—is well known outside the netherlands. Already by the end of the period artists were complaining that buyers were more interested in dead than living artists.

If simply because of the enormous quantities produced, Dutch Golden Historic period painting has always formed a significant part of collections of Old Master paintings, itself a term invented in the 18th century to depict Dutch Golden Age artists. Taking just Wouwerman paintings in onetime royal collections, there are more than 60 in Dresden and over 50 in the Hermitage.^[75] But the reputation of the period has shown many changes and shifts of accent. One nigh abiding factor has been admiration for Rembrandt, especially since the Romantic menses. Other artists have shown drastic shifts in critical fortune and market price; at the end of the menses some of the active Leiden fijnschilders had enormous reputations, but since the mid-19th century realist works in various genres have been far more appreciated.^[76]

Vermeer was rescued from near-total obscurity in the 19th century, by which fourth dimension several of his works had been re-attributed to others. However the fact that and then many of his works were already in major collections, often attributed to other artists, demonstrates that the quality of individual paintings was recognised even if his collective oeuvre was unknown.^[77] Other artists have continued to be rescued from the mass of little known painters: the late and very simple still lifes of Adriaen Coorte in the 1950s,^[78] and the landscapists Jacobus Mancaden and Frans Post earlier in the century.^[79]

Genre paintings were long pop, but fiddling-regarded. In 1780 Horace Walpole disapproved that they "invite laughter to divert itself with the nastiest indelicacy of boors".^[80] Sir Joshua Reynolds, the English leader of 18th-century academic fine art, made several revealing comments on Dutch art. He was impressed by the quality of Vermeer'southward Milkmaid (illustrated at the first of this article), and the liveliness of Hals' portraits, regretting he lacked the "patience" to finish them properly, and lamented that Steen had not been born in Italy and formed past the Loftier Renaissance, so that his talent could have been put to ameliorate use.^[81] By Reynold's time the moralist attribute of genre painting was no longer understood, fifty-fifty in the Netherlands; the famous instance is the and then-called Paternal Admonition, as it was and then known, by Gerard ter Borch. This was praised by Goethe and others for the delicacy of its depiction of a begetter reprimanding his daughter. In fact to most (but not all) modern scholars it is a proposition scene in a brothel – there are two versions (Berlin & Amsterdam) and it is unclear whether a "tell-tale coin" in the man'southward hand has been removed or overpainted in either.^[82]

In the second half of the 18th century, the downward to earth realism of Dutch painting was a "Whig taste" in England, and in France associated with Enlightenment rationalism and aspirations for political reform.^[83] In the 19th century, with a near-universal respect for realism, and the final decline of the hierarchy of genres, contemporary painters began to infringe from genre painters both their realism and their apply of objects for narrative purposes, and paint similar subjects themselves, with all the genres the Dutch had pioneered appearing on far larger canvases (still lifes excepted).

In mural painting, the Italianate artists were the nearly influential and highly regarded in the 18th century, but John Constable was among those Romantics who denounced them for artificiality, preferring the tonal and classical artists.^[58] In fact both groups remained influential and popular in the 19th century.

Notes [edit]

^ In general histories 1702 is sometimes taken as the end of the Gold Historic period, a date which works reasonably well for painting. Slive, who avoids the term (see p. 296), divides his book into two parts: 1600–1675 (294 pages) and 1675–1800 (32 pages).
^ Confusingly, one particular genre of painting is chosen genre painting, the painting of some kind of everyday scenes with unidentified people. But, for example, withal-life is besides a genre in painting.
^ Fuchs, 104
^ Franits, 2-iii
^ Lloyd, 15, citing Jonathan Israel. Maybe only 1% survive today, and "simply about x% of these were of real quality".
^ Franits, 2
^ January Steen was an innkeeper, Aelbert Cuyp was one of many whose wealthy wives persuaded them to surrender painting, although Karel Dujardin seems to accept run away from his to go on his work. Conversely Jan van de Cappelle came from a very wealthy family, and Joachim Wtewael was a self-made flax tycoon. Run across their biographies in MacLaren. The fish creative person Jacob Gillig also worked as a warder in the Utrecht prison house, conveniently close to the fish market place. Archived 2018-08-xiii at the Wayback Machine Bankrupts included: Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Jan de Bray, and many others.
^ Franits, 217 and ff. on 1672 and its effects.
^ Fuchs, 43; Franits, 2 calls this "oft-quoted" remark "undoubtedly exaggerated".
^ Fuchs, 104
^ Prak (2008), 151-153, or Prak (2003), 241
^ Prak (2008), 153
^ ^a ^b ^c Fuchs, 43
^ Franits' volume is largely organized by city and past period; Slive by bailiwick categories
^ Franits throughout, summarized on p. 260
^ Fuchs, 76
^ Encounter Slive, 296-7 and elsewhere
^ Fuchs, 107
^ Fuchs, 62, R.H. Wilenski, Dutch Painting, "Prologue" pp. 27–43, 1945, Faber, London
^ Fuchs, 62-3
^ Slive, xiii-14
^ Fuchs, 62-69
^ Franits, 65. Catholic 17th-century Dutch artists included Abraham Bloemaert and Gerard van Honthorst from Utrecht, and Jan Steen, Paulus Bor, Jacob van Velsen, plus Vermeer who probably converted at his spousal relationship.[one] Jacob Jordaens was among Flemish Protestant artists.
^ Slive, 22-iv
^ Fuchs, 69-77
^ Fuchs, 77-78
^ Trip family unit tree. Her grandparents' various portraits past Rembrandt are famous.
^ Ekkart, 17 north.1 (on p. 228).
^ Shawe-Taylor, 22-23, 32-33 on portraits, quotation from 33
^ Ekkart, 118
^ Ekkart, 130 and 114.
^ Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 68-69
^ Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 66-68
^ Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 73
^ Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 69-71
^ Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 72-73
^ Another version at Apsley Business firm, with a different limerick, but using about of the same moralizing objects, is analysed by Franits, 206-9
^ Fuchs, 42 and Slive, 123
^ Slive, 123
^ Franits, ane, mentioning costume in works by the Utrecht Caravagggisti, and architectural settings, every bit especially prone to abandon authentic depiction.
^ Franits, 4-vi summarizes the argue, for which Svetlana Alpers' The Art of Describing (1983) is an important work (though run into Slive's terse comment on p. 344). Encounter also Franits, 20-21 on paintings being understood differently by contemporary individuals, and his p.24
^ On Diderot's Fine art Criticism. Mira Friedman, p. 36 Archived July 21, 2011, at the Wayback Auto
^ Fuchs, 39-42, analyses two comparable scenes past Steen and Dou, and p. 46.
^ Fuchs, pp 54, 44, 45.
^ Slive, 191
^ Slive, 1
^ Explored at length past Schama in his Affiliate six. Run into too the analysis of The Milkmaid (Vermeer), claimed by different art historians for each tradition.
^ Franits, 180-182, though he strangely seems to discount the possibility that the couple are married. Married or not, the hunter clearly hopes for a return from his gift of (punning) birds, though the open shoe and gun on the floor, pointing in different directions, propose he may be disappointed. Metsu used opposed dogs several times, and may have invented the motif, which was copied by Victorian artists. A statue of Cupid presides over the scene.
^ Franits, 24-27
^ Franits, 34-43. Presumably these are intended to imply houses abandoned past Cosmic gentry who had fled south in the Fourscore Years' War. His self-portrait shows him, equally implausibly, working in just such a setting.
^ Fuchs, 80
^ Franits, 164-six.
^ MacLaren, 227
^ Franits, 152-6. Schama, 455-460 discusses the full general preoccupation with maidservants, "the most dangerous women of all" (p. 455). Run across also Franits, 118-119 and 166 on servants.
^ Slive, 189 – the written report is by H.-U. Brook (1991)
^ Slive, 190 (quote), 195-202
^ Derived from works past Allart van Everdingen who, unlike Ruysdael, had visited Norway, in 1644. Slive, 203
^ ^a ^b Slive, 225
^ Rembrandt endemic seven Seghers; after a contempo fire simply 11 are at present thought to survive – how many of Rembrandt'due south remain is unclear.
^ Slive, 268-273
^ Slive, 273-6
^ Slive, 213-216
^ Franits, one
^ Slive, 213-224
^ MacLaren, 79
^ Slive, 279-281. Fuchs, 109
^ Pronkstilleven in: Oxford Lexicon of Art Terms
^ Fuchs, 113-6
^ and only a few others, see Slive, 128, 320-321 and index, and Schama, 414. The outstanding woman artist of the age was Judith Leyster.
^ Fuchs, 111-112. Slive, 279-281, also roofing unseasonal and recurring blooms.
^ Slive, 287-291
^ Rüdger Joppien. "The Dutch Vision of Brazil: Johan Maurits and His Artists," in Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, 1604-1679: A Humanist Prince in Europe and Brazil, ed. Ernst van den Boogaart, et al. 297-376. The Hague: Johan Maurits van Nassau Stichting, 1979.
^ van Groesen, Amsterdam's Atlantic, pp. 171-72. With the Portuguese replacementr of the Dutch, Maurits gave the Vrijburg Palace paintings to Frederick III of Denmark
^ Michiel van Groesen, Amsterdam's Atlantic: Print Culture and the Making of Dutch Brazil. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Printing 2017, pp. 150-51.
^ Slive, 212
^ Come across Reitlinger, eleven-15, 23-four, and passim, and listings for individual artists
^ See Reitlinger, 483-4, and passim
^ Slive, 319
^ Slive, 191-two
^ "Advertisement" or Preface to Vol. iv of the second edition of Anecdotes of Painting in England, based on George Vertue's notebooks, page 9, 1782, J. Dodwell, London, Internet Archive
^ Slive, 144 (Vermeer), 41-2 (Hals), 173 (Steen)
^ Slive, 158-160 (coin quote), and Fuchs, 147-8, who uses the title Brothel Scene. Franits, 146-7, citing Alison Kettering, says there is "deliberate vagueness" as to the field of study, and still uses the title Paternal Admonition.
^ Reitlinger, I, 11-xv. Quote p.13

References [edit]

History of Dutch and Flemish painting
Early Netherlandish (1400–1523)
Renaissance painting (1520–1580)
Northern Mannerism (1580–1615)
Dutch "Golden Age" painting (1615–1702)
Flemish Baroque painting (1608–1700)
Hague School (1860–1890)
Amsterdam Impressionism (1885–1930)
De Stijl (1917–1931)
List of Dutch painters
List of Flemish painters

"Ekkart": Rudi Ekkart and Quentin Buvelot (eds), Dutch Portraits, The Age of Rembrandt and Frans Hals, Mauritshuis/National Gallery/Waanders Publishers, Zwolle, 2007, ISBN 978-i-85709-362-9
Franits, Wayne, Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre Painting, Yale UP, 2004, ISBN 0-300-10237-2
Fuchs, RH, Dutch painting, Thames and Hudson, London, 1978, ISBN 0-500-20167-six
Ingamells, John, The Wallace Collection, Catalogue of Pictures, Vol IV, Dutch and Flemish, Wallace Collection, 1992, ISBN 0-900785-37-three
Lloyd, Christopher, Enchanting the Eye, Dutch Paintings of the Golden Historic period, Royal Collection Publications, 2004, ISBN one-902163-ninety-7
MacLaren, Neil, The Dutch School, 1600–1800, Volume I, 1991, National Gallery Catalogues, National Gallery, London, ISBN 0-947645-99-3; the main source for biographical details
Prak, Maarten, (2003) "Guilds and the Development of the Art Market place during the Dutch Golden Age." In: Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Fine art, vol. xxx, no. 3/iv. (2003), pp. 236–251. Expanded version is Prak (2008)
Prak, Maarten, (2008), Painters, Guilds and the Fine art Market during the Dutch Golden Historic period, in Epstein, Stephen R. and Prak, Maarten (eds), Guilds, innovation, and the European economy, 1400–1800, Cambridge Academy Press, 2008, ISBN 0-521-88717-8, ISBN 978-0-521-88717-5
Reitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Gustation, Vol I: The Rise and Autumn of Motion-picture show Prices 1760–1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961
Schama, Simon, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age, 1987
Shawe-Taylor, Desmond and Scott, Jennifer, Bruegel to Rubens, Masters of Flemish Painting, Royal Collection Publications, London, 2008, ISBN 978-1-905686-00-1
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale Upward, 1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-iv

External links [edit]

Painting in the Dutch Golden Age - National Gallery of Fine art
A Brief Overview of the Dutch Art Market in the 17th century

Who Was Dutch Painter of the Baroque Art Style

Types of painting [edit]

The art globe [edit]

History painting [edit]

Portraits [edit]

Scenes of everyday life [edit]

Landscapes and cityscapes [edit]

Maritime painting [edit]

Nevertheless lifes [edit]

Foreign lands [edit]

Subsequent reputation [edit]

See also [edit]

Notes [edit]

References [edit]

Further reading [edit]

External links [edit]

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